Since The Odyssey was originally performed orally, it has a very distinct structure and sound to it. Certain passages are repeated to place emphasis on similar events as well as to aid memory. For example, when Telemachus sends Penelope to her room in Book 21, he uses almost the exact same words as he does in Book 1.
"So, mother, go back to your quarters. Tend to your own tasks, the distaff and the loom, and keep the women working hard as well. As for giving orders, men will see to that, but I most of all: I hold the reins of power in this house. (Fagles 1.409-414, emphasis added)"
"So, mother, go back to your quarters. Tend to your own tasks, the distaff and the loom, and keep the women working hard as well. As for the bow now, men will see to that, but I most of all: I hold the reins of power in this house. (Fagles 21.389-394, emphasis added)"Penelope's reaction is identical in both situations. By having the little episode from the start of the book recur at the end, Homer demonstrates how far Telemachus has come. In Book 1, his directive was almost comical and we took it as evidence that he hadn't quite learned how to act yet. In Book 21, the same statement is backed up by his growth as a character and is thus taken far more seriously. This sort of repetition is recurrent in The Odyssey, and it creates an relaxing rhythm that lulls the listeners (or readers, recently) to sweet somnolence.
For me at least, the most curious aspect of The Odyssey's repetition was the extensive usage of epithets for the characters. Odysseus alone is referred to as "man of twists and turns," "master mariner," "godlike," "crafty," "embattled," "wise," and "storm-tossed." Athena always has flashing eyes, Ino has exceptionally beautiful ankles, Telemachus is calm and cool-headed, and Eumaeus is the loyal swineherd. When characters have numerous epithets, they still revolve around a couple of central themes. For example, Odysseus' epithets pretty much all refer to his guile, war-crafting abilities, or suffering. In a work with such a huge number of characters, major and minor, epithets make it easier for both the bard and audience to keep everything straight. In addition, they allow Homer to fit his poetic meter (dactylic hexameter, if you were wondering) more easily by essentially adding syllables to the character's names. Even though our translation is not metered, the epithets add a sense of rhythm that drives the poem forward ceaselessly.
Interestingly enough, these quirks of Greek oral tradition are not unique to their culture. Old Norse oral poetry follows many of the same conventions, albeit in a slightly different fashion. Rather than ubiquitous epithets, many words have kennings, circumlocutious and idiomatic phrases whose meanings are well understood by the audience. For example, fire could be called "bane of wood," and a sword might be referenced with the phrases "icicle of blood," "wound-hoe," or "leek of battle." These kennings are used frequently in Skaldic poetry (Skalds were the Viking equivalents of bards, reciting poetry in the courts of various kings) to fit the alliterative verse of their works. As time went on, kennings were also used to avoid saying the true names of certain evil things, as in The Lord of the Rings when the Balrog is repeatedly called "Durin's bane." Kennings were often repeated between poems, simplifying memorization for the performing skald much as epithets simplified memorization for Greek bards. Although our records of the Greek traditions are over a thousand years older than our records of the Norse, it's interesting to see how similar their methods of storytelling were despite the lack of communication between the two cultures.
PS: The structure of Old Norse poetry particularly fascinates me because it was based around alliteration rather than rhyming. If you'd like to hear an example of this and aren't satisfied by reading my pathetic attempt at alliteration at the end of the third paragraph aloud, the video below contains a modern composition that's pretty good. Enjoy! :)
https://youtu.be/zuFsBtQCfPY?t=3m48s
This is a really interesting examination of the way The Odyssey is worded. I learned a lot reading this. I think that the comparison to Skaldic poetry is cool. It sort of shows how common the method is, almost like telling stories like this is human nature. Even now, people enjoy things like easter eggs which reference other stories.
ReplyDeleteThis is a really great post. I definitely agree that the use of epithets and repetition in the poem plays a big part in making it so compelling. when I was reading the epic, I almost started calling the characters "bright-eyed athena" or "loyal Eumaeus" in my head, so I guess the epithets were pretty effective in shaping my understandings of the characters. I didn't know anything about Old Norse poetry before reading this post, but it's interesting that the two are so similar.
ReplyDeleteThis is a very in depth blog post--I find these similarities between two seemingly distinct cultures fascinating. It is probable that these particular traditions and practices of the Proto-Indo-Europeans were retained in these newly developed, distinct peoples--this just goes to show the unique importance of the bard and a story like the Odyssey in society.
ReplyDeleteOh, that's a good point! I hadn't thought about the common ancestor aspect of the two cultures. Another shared part of Greek and Norse culture is the law of hospitality. In Norse mythology, Odin (the parallel to Zeus essentially) would often disguise himself as a beggar to test mortals, and several myths revolve around the gods' duty to grant hospitality to anyone who enters their halls. This similarity could also be a result of Proto-Indo-European traditions.
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